diff --git a/CMakeLists.txt b/CMakeLists.txt
index 3c9b6ce04..c11962a22 100644
--- a/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -180,6 +180,8 @@ list(APPEND SRC_FILES
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/gfx/uniform_buffer.cpp
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/gfx/vertex_attribute.cpp
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/renderer/render_target.cpp
+    ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.cpp
+    ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.hpp
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/renderer/change_request.cpp
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/renderer/layer_group.cpp
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/renderer/tile_layer_group.cpp
diff --git a/cmake/metal.cmake b/cmake/metal.cmake
index 3ce93728a..31813d536 100644
--- a/cmake/metal.cmake
+++ b/cmake/metal.cmake
@@ -48,6 +48,7 @@ list(APPEND
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/line.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/location_indicator.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/particle_gpu_validation.hpp
+        ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/raster.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/shader_group.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/shader_program.hpp
@@ -92,6 +93,7 @@ list(APPEND
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/line.cpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/location_indicator.cpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/particle_gpu_validation.cpp
+        ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.cpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/raster.cpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/symbol.cpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/widevector.cpp
diff --git a/cmake/opengl.cmake b/cmake/opengl.cmake
index f2990c439..66601e48c 100644
--- a/cmake/opengl.cmake
+++ b/cmake/opengl.cmake
@@ -37,6 +37,7 @@ list(APPEND
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/fill_extrusion_pattern_instanced.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/heatmap.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/heatmap_texture.hpp
+        ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/hillshade_prepare.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/hillshade.hpp
         ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/color_relief.hpp
diff --git a/include/mbgl/gfx/context.hpp b/include/mbgl/gfx/context.hpp
index 01816e0ec..a9648738f 100644
--- a/include/mbgl/gfx/context.hpp
+++ b/include/mbgl/gfx/context.hpp
@@ -82,6 +82,10 @@ public:
     virtual void reduceMemoryUsage() = 0;
 
     virtual std::unique_ptr<OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size, TextureChannelDataType) = 0;
+    virtual std::unique_ptr<OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size,
+                                                                     TextureChannelDataType,
+                                                                     bool,
+                                                                     bool) = 0;
 
     template <RenderbufferPixelType pixelType>
     Renderbuffer<pixelType> createRenderbuffer(const Size size) {
diff --git a/include/mbgl/mtl/context.hpp b/include/mbgl/mtl/context.hpp
index 3dd2ab322..3785f14ee 100644
--- a/include/mbgl/mtl/context.hpp
+++ b/include/mbgl/mtl/context.hpp
@@ -106,7 +106,10 @@ public:
 
     void setDirtyState() override;
 
-    std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size, gfx::TextureChannelDataType, bool, bool);
+    std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size,
+                                                                  gfx::TextureChannelDataType,
+                                                                  bool,
+                                                                  bool) override;
 
     std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size, gfx::TextureChannelDataType) override;
 
diff --git a/include/mbgl/particle/renderer_debug_counters.hpp b/include/mbgl/particle/renderer_debug_counters.hpp
index a22d508f8..278c637f2 100644
--- a/include/mbgl/particle/renderer_debug_counters.hpp
+++ b/include/mbgl/particle/renderer_debug_counters.hpp
@@ -22,6 +22,13 @@ enum class RendererDebugCounter : uint8_t {
     TrailTargetCreateOrResize,
     V4ProjectionMaterialize,
     FieldWindowRevision,
+    FullRendererFrame,
+    RetainedUnderlayBuild,
+    RetainedUnderlayReuse,
+    RetainedUnderlayFallback,
+    RetainedUnderlayInvalidation,
+    RetainedUnderlayStaticGroupDraw,
+    RetainedDynamicGroupDraw,
     Count,
 };
 
@@ -40,6 +47,13 @@ struct RendererDebugCounterSnapshot {
     uint64_t trailTargetCreateOrResize = 0;
     uint64_t v4ProjectionMaterialize = 0;
     uint64_t fieldWindowRevision = 0;
+    uint64_t fullRendererFrame = 0;
+    uint64_t retainedUnderlayBuild = 0;
+    uint64_t retainedUnderlayReuse = 0;
+    uint64_t retainedUnderlayFallback = 0;
+    uint64_t retainedUnderlayInvalidation = 0;
+    uint64_t retainedUnderlayStaticGroupDraw = 0;
+    uint64_t retainedDynamicGroupDraw = 0;
 };
 
 inline std::atomic_uint64_t* rendererDebugCounterStorage() {
@@ -59,7 +73,10 @@ inline RendererDebugCounterSnapshot rendererDebugCounterSnapshot() {
             values[6].load(std::memory_order_relaxed), values[7].load(std::memory_order_relaxed),
             values[8].load(std::memory_order_relaxed), values[9].load(std::memory_order_relaxed),
             values[10].load(std::memory_order_relaxed), values[11].load(std::memory_order_relaxed),
-            values[12].load(std::memory_order_relaxed)};
+            values[12].load(std::memory_order_relaxed), values[13].load(std::memory_order_relaxed),
+            values[14].load(std::memory_order_relaxed), values[15].load(std::memory_order_relaxed),
+            values[16].load(std::memory_order_relaxed), values[17].load(std::memory_order_relaxed),
+            values[18].load(std::memory_order_relaxed), values[19].load(std::memory_order_relaxed)};
 }
 #else
 inline void incrementRendererDebugCounter(RendererDebugCounter) {}
diff --git a/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp b/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5eaf7cce6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+// Generated code, do not modify this file!
+#pragma once
+#include <mbgl/shaders/shader_source.hpp>
+
+namespace mbgl {
+namespace shaders {
+
+template <>
+struct ShaderSource<BuiltIn::RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader, gfx::Backend::Type::OpenGL> {
+    static constexpr const char* name = "RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader";
+    static constexpr const char* vertex = R"(layout (location = 0) in vec2 a_pos;
+out vec2 v_uv;
+
+void main() {
+    gl_Position = vec4(a_pos.x * 2.0 - 1.0, 1.0 - a_pos.y * 2.0, 0.0, 1.0);
+    v_uv = vec2(a_pos.x, 1.0 - a_pos.y);
+}
+)";
+    static constexpr const char* fragment = R"(in vec2 v_uv;
+uniform sampler2D u_image;
+
+void main() {
+    fragColor = texture(u_image, v_uv);
+}
+)";
+};
+
+} // namespace shaders
+} // namespace mbgl
diff --git a/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/shader_info.hpp b/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/shader_info.hpp
index 20fa76e47..ecd9f1de8 100644
--- a/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/shader_info.hpp
+++ b/include/mbgl/shaders/gl/shader_info.hpp
@@ -156,6 +156,13 @@ struct ShaderInfo<BuiltIn::ParticleGpuValidationShader, gfx::Backend::Type::Open
     static const std::vector<TextureInfo> textures;
 };
 
+template <>
+struct ShaderInfo<BuiltIn::RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader, gfx::Backend::Type::OpenGL> {
+    static const std::vector<AttributeInfo> attributes;
+    static const std::vector<UniformBlockInfo> uniformBlocks;
+    static const std::vector<TextureInfo> textures;
+};
+
 template <>
 struct ShaderInfo<BuiltIn::HillshadePrepareShader, gfx::Backend::Type::OpenGL> {
     static const std::vector<AttributeInfo> attributes;
diff --git a/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp b/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..86508045f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/include/mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <mbgl/shaders/shader_source.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/shaders/mtl/shader_program.hpp>
+
+namespace mbgl::shaders {
+
+template <>
+struct ShaderSource<BuiltIn::RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader, gfx::Backend::Type::Metal> {
+    static constexpr auto name = "RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader";
+    static constexpr auto vertexMainFunction = "vertexMain";
+    static constexpr auto fragmentMainFunction = "fragmentMain";
+    static const std::array<AttributeInfo, 1> attributes;
+    static constexpr std::array<AttributeInfo, 0> instanceAttributes{};
+    static const std::array<TextureInfo, 1> textures;
+    static constexpr auto prelude = R"()";
+    static constexpr auto source = R"(
+struct VertexStage { short2 pos [[attribute(0)]]; };
+struct FragmentStage { float4 position [[position, invariant]]; float2 uv; };
+
+FragmentStage vertex vertexMain(thread const VertexStage in [[stage_in]]) {
+    const float2 p = float2(in.pos);
+    return { .position = float4(p.x * 2.0 - 1.0, 1.0 - p.y * 2.0, 0.0, 1.0), .uv = p };
+}
+
+half4 fragment fragmentMain(FragmentStage in [[stage_in]],
+                            texture2d<float, access::sample> image [[texture(0)]],
+                            sampler imageSampler [[sampler(0)]]) {
+    return half4(image.sample(imageSampler, in.uv));
+}
+)";
+};
+
+} // namespace mbgl::shaders
diff --git a/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_defines.hpp b/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_defines.hpp
index 85a40fee0..ba335991c 100644
--- a/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_defines.hpp
+++ b/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_defines.hpp
@@ -347,6 +347,11 @@ enum {
     particleGpuValidationTextureCount
 };
 
+enum {
+    idRetainedUnderlayCompositeTexture,
+    retainedUnderlayCompositeTextureCount
+};
+
 enum {
     idHillshadeImageTexture,
     hillshadeTextureCount
@@ -392,6 +397,7 @@ static constexpr uint32_t maxTextureCountPerShader = std::max({static_cast<uint3
                                                                static_cast<uint32_t>(fillExtrusionTextureCount),
                                                                static_cast<uint32_t>(heatmapTextureCount),
                                                                static_cast<uint32_t>(particleGpuValidationTextureCount),
+                                                               static_cast<uint32_t>(retainedUnderlayCompositeTextureCount),
                                                                static_cast<uint32_t>(hillshadeTextureCount),
                                                                static_cast<uint32_t>(colorReliefTextureCount),
                                                                static_cast<uint32_t>(lineTextureCount),
@@ -410,6 +416,11 @@ enum {
     particleGpuValidationVertexAttributeCount
 };
 
+enum {
+    idRetainedUnderlayCompositePosVertexAttribute,
+    retainedUnderlayCompositeVertexAttributeCount
+};
+
 enum {
     idCirclePosVertexAttribute,
 
diff --git a/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_manifest.hpp b/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_manifest.hpp
index a60fadad9..0ab211d49 100644
--- a/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_manifest.hpp
+++ b/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_manifest.hpp
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@
 #include <mbgl/shaders/gl/heatmap.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/gl/heatmap_texture.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/gl/particle_gpu_validation.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/shaders/gl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/gl/hillshade_prepare.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/gl/color_relief.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/gl/hillshade.hpp>
diff --git a/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_source.hpp b/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_source.hpp
index 12979aa4f..4a3006ef9 100644
--- a/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_source.hpp
+++ b/include/mbgl/shaders/shader_source.hpp
@@ -31,6 +31,7 @@ enum class BuiltIn {
     HeatmapShader,
     HeatmapTextureShader,
     ParticleGpuValidationShader,
+    RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader,
     HillshadePrepareShader,
     ColorReliefShader,
     HillshadeShader,
diff --git a/include/mbgl/vulkan/context.hpp b/include/mbgl/vulkan/context.hpp
index 357caaf99..a5e0bc86f 100644
--- a/include/mbgl/vulkan/context.hpp
+++ b/include/mbgl/vulkan/context.hpp
@@ -106,7 +106,10 @@ public:
 
     void setDirtyState() override {}
 
-    std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size, gfx::TextureChannelDataType, bool, bool);
+    std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size,
+                                                                  gfx::TextureChannelDataType,
+                                                                  bool,
+                                                                  bool) override;
 
     std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size, gfx::TextureChannelDataType) override;
 
diff --git a/include/mbgl/webgpu/context.hpp b/include/mbgl/webgpu/context.hpp
index d381cfb32..6f4388ec0 100644
--- a/include/mbgl/webgpu/context.hpp
+++ b/include/mbgl/webgpu/context.hpp
@@ -43,7 +43,10 @@ public:
     void reduceMemoryUsage() override;
 
     // Resource creation
-    std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size, gfx::TextureChannelDataType, bool, bool);
+    std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size,
+                                                                  gfx::TextureChannelDataType,
+                                                                  bool,
+                                                                  bool) override;
     std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size, gfx::TextureChannelDataType) override;
     std::unique_ptr<gfx::CommandEncoder> createCommandEncoder() override;
     gfx::VertexAttributeArrayPtr createVertexAttributeArray() const override;
diff --git a/shaders/manifest.json b/shaders/manifest.json
index 45cd484d0..d1d03e728 100644
--- a/shaders/manifest.json
+++ b/shaders/manifest.json
@@ -151,6 +151,13 @@
         "glsl_frag": "particle_gpu_validation.fragment.glsl",
         "uses_ubos": true
     },
+    {
+        "name": "RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader",
+        "header": "retained_underlay_composite",
+        "glsl_vert": "retained_underlay_composite.vertex.glsl",
+        "glsl_frag": "retained_underlay_composite.fragment.glsl",
+        "uses_ubos": true
+    },
     {
         "name": "HillshadePrepareShader",
         "header": "hillshade_prepare",
diff --git a/shaders/retained_underlay_composite.fragment.glsl b/shaders/retained_underlay_composite.fragment.glsl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..26f045b7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/shaders/retained_underlay_composite.fragment.glsl
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+in vec2 v_uv;
+uniform sampler2D u_image;
+
+void main() {
+    fragColor = texture(u_image, v_uv);
+}
diff --git a/shaders/retained_underlay_composite.vertex.glsl b/shaders/retained_underlay_composite.vertex.glsl
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..6c5eeb24a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/shaders/retained_underlay_composite.vertex.glsl
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+layout (location = 0) in vec2 a_pos;
+out vec2 v_uv;
+
+void main() {
+    gl_Position = vec4(a_pos.x * 2.0 - 1.0, 1.0 - a_pos.y * 2.0, 0.0, 1.0);
+    v_uv = vec2(a_pos.x, 1.0 - a_pos.y);
+}
diff --git a/src/mbgl/gl/context.cpp b/src/mbgl/gl/context.cpp
index 5e7749013..ee87a0bc6 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/gl/context.cpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/gl/context.cpp
@@ -436,7 +436,15 @@ std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> Context::createOffscreenTexture(const Siz
                                                                        const gfx::TextureChannelDataType type) {
     MLN_TRACE_FUNC();
 
-    return std::make_unique<gl::OffscreenTexture>(*this, size, type);
+    return std::make_unique<gl::OffscreenTexture>(*this, size, type, false, false);
+}
+
+std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> Context::createOffscreenTexture(const Size size,
+                                                                       const gfx::TextureChannelDataType type,
+                                                                       const bool depth,
+                                                                       const bool stencil) {
+    MLN_TRACE_FUNC();
+    return std::make_unique<gl::OffscreenTexture>(*this, size, type, depth, stencil);
 }
 
 std::unique_ptr<gfx::DrawScopeResource> Context::createDrawScopeResource() {
@@ -611,6 +619,24 @@ Framebuffer Context::createFramebuffer(const gfx::Texture2D& color) {
     return {color.getSize(), std::move(fbo)};
 }
 
+Framebuffer Context::createFramebuffer(
+    const gfx::Texture2D& color,
+    const gfx::Renderbuffer<gfx::RenderbufferPixelType::DepthStencil>& depthStencil) {
+    if (color.getSize() != depthStencil.getSize()) {
+        throw std::runtime_error("Renderbuffer size mismatch");
+    }
+    auto fbo = createFramebuffer();
+    bindFramebuffer = fbo;
+    MBGL_CHECK_ERROR(glFramebufferTexture2D(GL_FRAMEBUFFER,
+                                            GL_COLOR_ATTACHMENT0,
+                                            GL_TEXTURE_2D,
+                                            static_cast<const gl::Texture2D&>(color).getTextureID(),
+                                            0));
+    bindDepthStencilRenderbuffer(depthStencil);
+    checkFramebuffer();
+    return {color.getSize(), std::move(fbo)};
+}
+
 gfx::VertexAttributeArrayPtr Context::createVertexAttributeArray() const {
     return std::make_shared<VertexAttributeArrayGL>();
 }
diff --git a/src/mbgl/gl/context.hpp b/src/mbgl/gl/context.hpp
index 0d654c4ba..d792f3f16 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/gl/context.hpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/gl/context.hpp
@@ -134,6 +134,8 @@ public:
     RenderTargetPtr createRenderTarget(const Size size, const gfx::TextureChannelDataType type) override;
 
     Framebuffer createFramebuffer(const gfx::Texture2D& color);
+    Framebuffer createFramebuffer(const gfx::Texture2D& color,
+                                  const gfx::Renderbuffer<gfx::RenderbufferPixelType::DepthStencil>&);
 
     gfx::VertexAttributeArrayPtr createVertexAttributeArray() const override;
 
@@ -212,6 +214,10 @@ private:
 
 public:
     std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size, gfx::TextureChannelDataType) override;
+    std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> createOffscreenTexture(Size,
+                                                                  gfx::TextureChannelDataType,
+                                                                  bool,
+                                                                  bool) override;
 
 private:
     std::unique_ptr<gfx::RenderbufferResource> createRenderbufferResource(gfx::RenderbufferPixelType,
diff --git a/src/mbgl/gl/offscreen_texture.cpp b/src/mbgl/gl/offscreen_texture.cpp
index 90f71b414..9fa3e283b 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/gl/offscreen_texture.cpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/gl/offscreen_texture.cpp
@@ -8,7 +8,11 @@ namespace gl {
 
 class OffscreenTextureResource final : public gl::RenderableResource {
 public:
-    OffscreenTextureResource(gl::Context& context_, const Size size_, const gfx::TextureChannelDataType type_)
+    OffscreenTextureResource(gl::Context& context_,
+                             const Size size_,
+                             const gfx::TextureChannelDataType type_,
+                             bool depth,
+                             bool stencil)
         : context(context_),
           size(size_),
           type(type_) {
@@ -19,6 +23,10 @@ public:
         texture->setSamplerConfiguration({.filter = gfx::TextureFilterType::Linear,
                                           .wrapU = gfx::TextureWrapType::Clamp,
                                           .wrapV = gfx::TextureWrapType::Clamp});
+        if (depth || stencil) {
+            depthStencil = std::make_unique<gfx::Renderbuffer<gfx::RenderbufferPixelType::DepthStencil>>(
+                context.createRenderbuffer<gfx::RenderbufferPixelType::DepthStencil>(size));
+        }
     }
 
     ~OffscreenTextureResource() noexcept override = default;
@@ -27,7 +35,8 @@ public:
         if (!framebuffer) {
             assert(texture);
             texture->create();
-            framebuffer = context.createFramebuffer(*texture);
+            framebuffer = depthStencil ? context.createFramebuffer(*texture, *depthStencil)
+                                       : context.createFramebuffer(*texture);
         } else {
             context.bindFramebuffer = framebuffer->framebuffer;
         }
@@ -54,10 +63,16 @@ private:
     gfx::Texture2DPtr texture;
     const gfx::TextureChannelDataType type;
     std::optional<gl::Framebuffer> framebuffer;
+    std::unique_ptr<gfx::Renderbuffer<gfx::RenderbufferPixelType::DepthStencil>> depthStencil;
 };
 
-OffscreenTexture::OffscreenTexture(gl::Context& context, const Size size_, const gfx::TextureChannelDataType type)
-    : gfx::OffscreenTexture(size, std::make_unique<OffscreenTextureResource>(context, size_, type)) {}
+OffscreenTexture::OffscreenTexture(gl::Context& context,
+                                   const Size size_,
+                                   const gfx::TextureChannelDataType type,
+                                   bool depth,
+                                   bool stencil)
+    : gfx::OffscreenTexture(
+          size_, std::make_unique<OffscreenTextureResource>(context, size_, type, depth, stencil)) {}
 
 bool OffscreenTexture::isRenderable() {
     try {
diff --git a/src/mbgl/gl/offscreen_texture.hpp b/src/mbgl/gl/offscreen_texture.hpp
index 13cec4c11..eba5fb94d 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/gl/offscreen_texture.hpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/gl/offscreen_texture.hpp
@@ -12,7 +12,9 @@ class OffscreenTexture final : public gfx::OffscreenTexture {
 public:
     OffscreenTexture(gl::Context&,
                      Size size,
-                     gfx::TextureChannelDataType type = gfx::TextureChannelDataType::UnsignedByte);
+                     gfx::TextureChannelDataType type = gfx::TextureChannelDataType::UnsignedByte,
+                     bool depth = false,
+                     bool stencil = false);
 
     bool isRenderable() override;
 
diff --git a/src/mbgl/gl/renderer_backend.cpp b/src/mbgl/gl/renderer_backend.cpp
index e705e6846..c5554bdfc 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/gl/renderer_backend.cpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/gl/renderer_backend.cpp
@@ -136,6 +136,7 @@ void RendererBackend::initShaders(gfx::ShaderRegistry& shaders, const ProgramPar
                   shaders::BuiltIn::HeatmapShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::HeatmapTextureShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::ParticleGpuValidationShader,
+                  shaders::BuiltIn::RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::HillshadePrepareShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::HillshadeShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::ColorReliefShader,
diff --git a/src/mbgl/mtl/renderer_backend.cpp b/src/mbgl/mtl/renderer_backend.cpp
index 65bf4106b..603424c88 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/mtl/renderer_backend.cpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/mtl/renderer_backend.cpp
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@
 #include <mbgl/shaders/mtl/line.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/mtl/location_indicator.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/mtl/particle_gpu_validation.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/mtl/raster.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/mtl/symbol.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/shaders/mtl/widevector.hpp>
@@ -133,6 +134,7 @@ void RendererBackend::initShaders(gfx::ShaderRegistry& shaders, const ProgramPar
                   shaders::BuiltIn::LocationIndicatorShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::LocationIndicatorTexturedShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::ParticleGpuValidationShader,
+                  shaders::BuiltIn::RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::RasterShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::SymbolIconShader,
                   shaders::BuiltIn::SymbolSDFShader,
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_location_indicator_layer.hpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_location_indicator_layer.hpp
index 35eab9591..0419dc20c 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_location_indicator_layer.hpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_location_indicator_layer.hpp
@@ -44,6 +44,7 @@ private:
 
 #ifndef MLN_DRAWABLE_LOCATION_INDICATOR
     void render(PaintParameters &) override;
+    bool usesLegacyRendering() const override { return true; }
 #endif
 
     void populateDynamicRenderFeatureIndex(DynamicFeatureIndex &) const override;
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_raster_particle_layer.hpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_raster_particle_layer.hpp
index 0fae7a429..6452a737d 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_raster_particle_layer.hpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_raster_particle_layer.hpp
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@ private:
     bool hasTransition() const override { return false; }
     bool hasCrossfade() const override { return false; }
     bool needsRepaint() const override;
+    bool startsRetainedDynamicRange() const override { return true; }
     void prepare(const LayerPrepareParameters&) override;
     void markLayerRenderable(bool, UniqueChangeRequestVec&) override;
     void layerRemoved(UniqueChangeRequestVec&) override;
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_weather_color_layer.hpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_weather_color_layer.hpp
index 7b62c6528..3f90151fa 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_weather_color_layer.hpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/layers/render_weather_color_layer.hpp
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ private:
     bool hasTransition() const override { return false; }
     bool hasCrossfade() const override { return false; }
     bool needsRepaint() const override;
+    bool startsRetainedDynamicRange() const override { return true; }
     void prepare(const LayerPrepareParameters&) override;
     void markLayerRenderable(bool, UniqueChangeRequestVec&) override;
     void layerRemoved(UniqueChangeRequestVec&) override;
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/render_layer.hpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/render_layer.hpp
index cd27548a0..1087206b2 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/renderer/render_layer.hpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/render_layer.hpp
@@ -109,6 +109,14 @@ public:
     // Returns true when an active animated layer needs another MapLibre frame.
     virtual bool needsRepaint() const { return false; }
 
+    // Renderer-internal boundary for retained static-underlay rendering. This is
+    // deliberately not exposed through the style or Host APIs.
+    virtual bool startsRetainedDynamicRange() const { return false; }
+
+    // Only layers that still issue commands through RenderLayer::render() need
+    // legacy ordering protection in the retained-underlay path.
+    virtual bool usesLegacyRendering() const { return false; }
+
     // Exceptional source-driven cleanup for a hidden layer. The default keeps
     // normal MapLibre hidden-layer lifecycle unchanged.
     virtual bool needsHiddenLayerSourceCleanup(const RenderSource&) const { return false; }
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/render_orchestrator.cpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/render_orchestrator.cpp
index fc93ddbd4..dcd7fabb5 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/renderer/render_orchestrator.cpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/render_orchestrator.cpp
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@
 #include <mbgl/renderer/render_source.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/renderer/render_layer.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/renderer/render_static_data.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/renderer/render_tree.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/renderer/update_parameters.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/renderer/upload_parameters.hpp>
@@ -364,6 +365,13 @@ std::unique_ptr<RenderTree> RenderOrchestrator::createRenderTree(
     // Track which layers are flagged for rendering
     std::vector<bool> updateList(orderedLayers.size());
 
+    RetainedDynamicBoundaryTracker boundaryTracker;
+    for (std::size_t index = 0; index < orderedLayers.size(); ++index) {
+        boundaryTracker.consider(static_cast<int32_t>(index),
+                                 orderedLayers[index].get().startsRetainedDynamicRange());
+    }
+    retainedDynamicBoundary = boundaryTracker.value();
+
     // Update all sources and initialize renderItems.
     for (const auto& sourceImpl : *sourceImpls) {
         MLN_TRACE_ZONE(update source);
@@ -848,6 +856,22 @@ bool RenderOrchestrator::hasTransitions(TimePoint timePoint) const {
     return false;
 }
 
+bool RenderOrchestrator::retainedUnderlayIsStable(TimePoint timePoint, int32_t boundary) const {
+    if (renderLight.hasTransition() || placementController.hasTransitions(timePoint)) return false;
+
+    const auto staticLayerCount = std::min<std::size_t>(
+        boundary > 0 ? static_cast<std::size_t>(boundary) : 0, orderedLayers.size());
+    for (std::size_t index = 0; index < staticLayerCount; ++index) {
+        const auto& layer = orderedLayers[index].get();
+        if (layer.hasTransition() || layer.needsRepaint()) return false;
+    }
+
+    for (const auto& entry : renderSources) {
+        if (entry.second->hasFadingTiles()) return false;
+    }
+    return true;
+}
+
 bool RenderOrchestrator::isLoaded() const {
     MLN_TRACE_FUNC();
 
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/render_orchestrator.hpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/render_orchestrator.hpp
index c439204cf..97f7baef3 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/renderer/render_orchestrator.hpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/render_orchestrator.hpp
@@ -15,9 +15,11 @@
 #include <mbgl/renderer/image_manager_observer.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/text/placement.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/renderer/render_tree.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.hpp>
 
 #include <map>
 #include <memory>
+#include <optional>
 #include <string>
 #include <unordered_map>
 #include <vector>
@@ -106,6 +108,8 @@ public:
     bool addLayerGroup(LayerGroupBasePtr);
     bool removeLayerGroup(const LayerGroupBasePtr&);
     size_t numLayerGroups() const noexcept;
+    std::optional<int32_t> getRetainedDynamicBoundary() const noexcept { return retainedDynamicBoundary; }
+    bool retainedUnderlayIsStable(TimePoint, int32_t boundary) const;
     void updateLayerIndex(LayerGroupBasePtr, int32_t newIndex);
 
     template <typename Func /* void(LayerGroupBase&) */>
@@ -121,6 +125,72 @@ public:
         }
     }
 
+    template <typename Func /* void(LayerGroupBase&, size_t originalOrdinal) */>
+    void visitLayerGroupsBefore(int32_t boundary, Func f) {
+        size_t ordinal = 0;
+        for (auto& pair : layerGroupsByLayerIndex) {
+            if (!retainedLayerGroupInRange(pair.first, boundary, RetainedLayerGroupRange::Before)) break;
+            if (pair.second) {
+                try {
+                    f(*pair.second, ordinal);
+                } catch (...) {
+                    observer->onRenderError(std::current_exception());
+                }
+            }
+            ++ordinal;
+        }
+    }
+
+    template <typename Func /* void(LayerGroupBase&, size_t originalOrdinal) */>
+    void visitLayerGroupsFrom(int32_t boundary, Func f) {
+        size_t ordinal = static_cast<size_t>(std::distance(layerGroupsByLayerIndex.begin(),
+                                                           layerGroupsByLayerIndex.lower_bound(boundary)));
+        for (auto it = layerGroupsByLayerIndex.lower_bound(boundary); it != layerGroupsByLayerIndex.end(); ++it) {
+            if (!retainedLayerGroupInRange(it->first, boundary, RetainedLayerGroupRange::From)) continue;
+            if (it->second) {
+                try {
+                    f(*it->second, ordinal);
+                } catch (...) {
+                    observer->onRenderError(std::current_exception());
+                }
+            }
+            ++ordinal;
+        }
+    }
+
+    template <typename Func /* void(LayerGroupBase&, size_t originalOrdinal) */>
+    void visitLayerGroupsBeforeReversed(int32_t boundary, Func f) {
+        auto end = layerGroupsByLayerIndex.lower_bound(boundary);
+        size_t ordinal = static_cast<size_t>(std::distance(layerGroupsByLayerIndex.begin(), end));
+        while (end != layerGroupsByLayerIndex.begin()) {
+            --end;
+            --ordinal;
+            if (end->second) {
+                try {
+                    f(*end->second, ordinal);
+                } catch (...) {
+                    observer->onRenderError(std::current_exception());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    template <typename Func /* void(LayerGroupBase&, size_t originalOrdinal) */>
+    void visitLayerGroupsFromReversed(int32_t boundary, Func f) {
+        auto begin = layerGroupsByLayerIndex.lower_bound(boundary);
+        size_t ordinal = layerGroupsByLayerIndex.size();
+        for (auto it = layerGroupsByLayerIndex.rbegin(); it.base() != begin; ++it) {
+            --ordinal;
+            if (it->second) {
+                try {
+                    f(*it->second, ordinal);
+                } catch (...) {
+                    observer->onRenderError(std::current_exception());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     template <typename Func /* void(LayerGroupBase&) */>
     void visitLayerGroupsReversed(Func f) {
         for (auto rit = layerGroupsByLayerIndex.rbegin(); rit != layerGroupsByLayerIndex.rend(); ++rit) {
@@ -241,6 +311,7 @@ private:
 
     using LayerGroupMap = std::multimap<int32_t, LayerGroupBasePtr>;
     LayerGroupMap layerGroupsByLayerIndex;
+    std::optional<int32_t> retainedDynamicBoundary;
 
     std::vector<RenderTargetPtr> renderTargets;
     RenderItem::DebugLayerGroupMap debugLayerGroups;
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/renderer_impl.cpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/renderer_impl.cpp
index 500773570..b37134893 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/renderer/renderer_impl.cpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/renderer_impl.cpp
@@ -23,6 +23,8 @@
 #include <mbgl/gfx/drawable_tweaker.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/renderer/layer_tweaker.hpp>
 #include <mbgl/renderer/render_target.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/particle/renderer_debug_counters.hpp>
 
 #if MLN_RENDER_BACKEND_METAL
 #include <mbgl/mtl/renderer_backend.hpp>
@@ -57,7 +59,8 @@ Renderer::Impl::Impl(gfx::RendererBackend& backend_,
     : orchestrator(!backend_.contextIsShared(), backend_.getThreadPool(), localFontFamily_),
       backend(backend_),
       observer(&nullObserver()),
-      pixelRatio(pixelRatio_) {}
+      pixelRatio(pixelRatio_),
+      retainedUnderlayCache(std::make_unique<RetainedUnderlayCache>()) {}
 
 Renderer::Impl::~Impl() {
     assert(gfx::BackendScope::exists());
@@ -91,6 +94,7 @@ void Renderer::Impl::setObserver(RendererObserver* observer_) {
 
 void Renderer::Impl::render(const RenderTree& renderTree, const std::shared_ptr<UpdateParameters>& updateParameters) {
     MLN_TRACE_FUNC();
+    particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(particle::RendererDebugCounter::FullRendererFrame);
     auto& context = backend.getContext();
     context.setObserver(this);
 
@@ -259,6 +263,58 @@ void Renderer::Impl::render(const RenderTree& renderTree, const std::shared_ptr<
 
     orchestrator.processChanges();
 
+    std::optional<RetainedUnderlayKey> retainedKey;
+    const auto retainedBoundary = orchestrator.getRetainedDynamicBoundary();
+    size_t retainedStaticGroupCount = 0;
+    if (retainedBoundary) {
+        orchestrator.visitLayerGroupsBefore(*retainedBoundary,
+                                            [&](LayerGroupBase&, size_t) { ++retainedStaticGroupCount; });
+        mat4 cameraMatrix;
+        state.getProjMatrix(cameraMatrix);
+        retainedKey = RetainedUnderlayKey{size, *retainedBoundary, cameraMatrix};
+    }
+    bool legacyBelowBoundary = false;
+    if (retainedBoundary) {
+        for (const auto& item : layerRenderItems) {
+            if (item.index < static_cast<uint32_t>(*retainedBoundary) && item.layer.get().usesLegacyRendering()) {
+                legacyBelowBoundary = true;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    const bool retainedSupported = retainedBoundary && retainedStaticGroupCount > 0 &&
+                                   renderTreeParameters.loaded && !renderTreeParameters.has3D &&
+                                   renderTreeParameters.debugOptions == MapDebugOptions::NoDebug &&
+                                   orchestrator.retainedUnderlayIsStable(renderTreeParameters.timePoint,
+                                                                         *retainedBoundary) &&
+                                   !renderTreeParameters.placementChanged &&
+                                   renderTreeParameters.symbolFadeChange == 0.0f &&
+                                   !legacyBelowBoundary;
+    const char* retainedFallbackReason = !retainedBoundary            ? "no-boundary"
+                                           : retainedStaticGroupCount == 0 ? "empty-static-prefix"
+                                           : !renderTreeParameters.loaded ? "style-not-loaded"
+                                           : renderTreeParameters.has3D   ? "3d"
+                                           : renderTreeParameters.debugOptions != MapDebugOptions::NoDebug
+                                               ? "debug-options"
+                                           : !orchestrator.retainedUnderlayIsStable(renderTreeParameters.timePoint,
+                                                                                     *retainedBoundary) ||
+                                                   renderTreeParameters.placementChanged ||
+                                                   renderTreeParameters.symbolFadeChange != 0.0f
+                                               ? "static-transition-or-placement"
+                                           : legacyBelowBoundary ? "legacy-ordering"
+                                                                 : nullptr;
+    auto retainedDecision = retainedUnderlayCache->evaluate(retainedKey,
+                                                            retainedSupported,
+                                                            retainedFallbackReason);
+    if ((retainedDecision == RetainedUnderlayDecision::Build ||
+         retainedDecision == RetainedUnderlayDecision::Reuse) &&
+        (!staticData->shaders || !retainedUnderlayCache->prepareResources(context, *staticData->shaders, *retainedKey))) {
+        retainedUnderlayCache->markBuildFailed("resource-or-compositor");
+        retainedDecision = RetainedUnderlayDecision::Fallback;
+    }
+    const bool useRetainedUnderlay = retainedDecision == RetainedUnderlayDecision::Build ||
+                                     retainedDecision == RetainedUnderlayDecision::Reuse;
+
     // Upload layer groups
     {
         const auto uploadPass = parameters.encoder->createUploadPass("layerGroup-upload",
@@ -290,6 +346,7 @@ void Renderer::Impl::render(const RenderTree& renderTree, const std::shared_ptr<
 
         // Upload the Debug layer group
         orchestrator.visitDebugLayerGroups([&](LayerGroupBase& layerGroup) { layerGroup.upload(*uploadPass); });
+        if (useRetainedUnderlay) retainedUnderlayCache->upload(*uploadPass);
     }
 
     const Size atlasSize = parameters.patternAtlas.getPixelSize();
@@ -353,6 +410,32 @@ void Renderer::Impl::render(const RenderTree& renderTree, const std::shared_ptr<
             [&](RenderTarget& renderTarget) { renderTarget.render(orchestrator, renderTree, parameters); });
     };
 
+    const auto buildRetainedUnderlay = [&] {
+        if (retainedDecision != RetainedUnderlayDecision::Build || !retainedBoundary) return;
+        retainedUnderlayCache->beginBuild(parameters);
+        context.bindGlobalUniformBuffers(*parameters.renderPass);
+        parameters.depthRangeSize = 1 - (orchestrator.numLayerGroups() + 2) * PaintParameters::numSublayers *
+                                            PaintParameters::depthEpsilon;
+        parameters.pass = RenderPass::Opaque;
+        orchestrator.visitLayerGroupsBeforeReversed(*retainedBoundary,
+                                                    [&](LayerGroupBase& layerGroup, size_t ordinal) {
+            parameters.currentLayer = static_cast<uint32_t>(orchestrator.numLayerGroups() - 1 - ordinal);
+            layerGroup.render(orchestrator, parameters);
+            particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(
+                particle::RendererDebugCounter::RetainedUnderlayStaticGroupDraw);
+        });
+        parameters.pass = RenderPass::Translucent;
+        orchestrator.visitLayerGroupsBefore(*retainedBoundary, [&](LayerGroupBase& layerGroup, size_t ordinal) {
+            parameters.currentLayer = static_cast<uint32_t>(orchestrator.numLayerGroups() - 1 - ordinal);
+            layerGroup.render(orchestrator, parameters);
+            particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(
+                particle::RendererDebugCounter::RetainedUnderlayStaticGroupDraw);
+        });
+        context.unbindGlobalUniformBuffers(*parameters.renderPass);
+        retainedUnderlayCache->finishBuild(parameters);
+        retainedUnderlayCache->markBuildSucceeded();
+    };
+
     const auto commonClearPass = [&] {
         // - CLEAR
         // -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -386,11 +469,20 @@ void Renderer::Impl::render(const RenderTree& renderTree, const std::shared_ptr<
                                             PaintParameters::depthEpsilon;
 
         // draw layer groups, opaque pass
-        parameters.currentLayer = 0;
-        orchestrator.visitLayerGroupsReversed([&](LayerGroupBase& layerGroup) {
-            layerGroup.render(orchestrator, parameters);
-            parameters.currentLayer++;
-        });
+        if (useRetainedUnderlay && retainedBoundary) {
+            orchestrator.visitLayerGroupsFromReversed(*retainedBoundary,
+                                                      [&](LayerGroupBase& layerGroup, size_t ordinal) {
+                parameters.currentLayer = static_cast<uint32_t>(orchestrator.numLayerGroups() - 1 - ordinal);
+                layerGroup.render(orchestrator, parameters);
+                particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(particle::RendererDebugCounter::RetainedDynamicGroupDraw);
+            });
+        } else {
+            parameters.currentLayer = 0;
+            orchestrator.visitLayerGroupsReversed([&](LayerGroupBase& layerGroup) {
+                layerGroup.render(orchestrator, parameters);
+                parameters.currentLayer++;
+            });
+        }
     };
 
     const auto drawableTranslucentPass = [&] {
@@ -400,13 +492,21 @@ void Renderer::Impl::render(const RenderTree& renderTree, const std::shared_ptr<
                                             PaintParameters::depthEpsilon;
 
         // draw layer groups, translucent pass
-        parameters.currentLayer = static_cast<uint32_t>(orchestrator.numLayerGroups()) - 1;
-        orchestrator.visitLayerGroups([&](LayerGroupBase& layerGroup) {
-            layerGroup.render(orchestrator, parameters);
-            if (parameters.currentLayer > 0) {
-                parameters.currentLayer--;
-            }
-        });
+        if (useRetainedUnderlay && retainedBoundary) {
+            orchestrator.visitLayerGroupsFrom(*retainedBoundary, [&](LayerGroupBase& layerGroup, size_t ordinal) {
+                parameters.currentLayer = static_cast<uint32_t>(orchestrator.numLayerGroups() - 1 - ordinal);
+                layerGroup.render(orchestrator, parameters);
+                particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(particle::RendererDebugCounter::RetainedDynamicGroupDraw);
+            });
+        } else {
+            parameters.currentLayer = static_cast<uint32_t>(orchestrator.numLayerGroups()) - 1;
+            orchestrator.visitLayerGroups([&](LayerGroupBase& layerGroup) {
+                layerGroup.render(orchestrator, parameters);
+                if (parameters.currentLayer > 0) {
+                    parameters.currentLayer--;
+                }
+            });
+        }
 
         // Finally, render any legacy layers which have not been converted to drawables.
         // Note that they may be out of order, this is just a temporary fix for `RenderLocationIndicatorLayer` (#2216)
@@ -439,8 +539,10 @@ void Renderer::Impl::render(const RenderTree& renderTree, const std::shared_ptr<
         drawable3DPass();
     }
     drawableTargetsPass();
+    buildRetainedUnderlay();
     commonClearPass();
     context.bindGlobalUniformBuffers(*parameters.renderPass);
+    if (useRetainedUnderlay) retainedUnderlayCache->composite(orchestrator, parameters);
     drawableOpaquePass();
     drawableTranslucentPass();
     drawableDebugOverlays();
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/renderer_impl.hpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/renderer_impl.hpp
index 9e27dabf6..ea8a0bf48 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/renderer/renderer_impl.hpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/renderer_impl.hpp
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ namespace mbgl {
 class RendererObserver;
 class RenderStaticData;
 class RenderTree;
+class RetainedUnderlayCache;
 
 namespace gfx {
 class RendererBackend;
@@ -53,6 +54,7 @@ private:
 
     const float pixelRatio;
     std::unique_ptr<RenderStaticData> staticData;
+    std::unique_ptr<RetainedUnderlayCache> retainedUnderlayCache;
     gfx::DynamicTextureAtlasPtr dynamicTextureAtlas;
     bool styleLoaded = false;
 
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.cpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..ea05fb612
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
+#include <mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.hpp>
+
+#include <mbgl/gfx/color_mode.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/gfx/context.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/gfx/cull_face_mode.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/gfx/drawable_builder.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/gfx/offscreen_texture.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/gfx/render_pass.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/gfx/upload_pass.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/gfx/vertex_attribute.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/particle/renderer_debug_counters.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/renderer/buckets/heatmap_bucket.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/renderer/layer_group.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/renderer/paint_parameters.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/renderer/render_orchestrator.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/renderer/render_static_data.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/shaders/shader_defines.hpp>
+
+namespace mbgl {
+
+namespace {
+constexpr auto CompositeShaderName = "RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader";
+}
+
+RetainedUnderlayCache::RetainedUnderlayCache() = default;
+RetainedUnderlayCache::~RetainedUnderlayCache() = default;
+
+RetainedUnderlayDecision RetainedUnderlayCache::evaluate(const std::optional<RetainedUnderlayKey>& nextKey,
+                                                         bool supported,
+                                                         const char* fallbackReason) {
+    if (!nextKey) return RetainedUnderlayDecision::Disabled;
+    if (!supported) {
+        ++fallbackCount;
+        particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(particle::RendererDebugCounter::RetainedUnderlayFallback);
+        invalidate(fallbackReason ? fallbackReason : "unsupported");
+        return RetainedUnderlayDecision::Fallback;
+    }
+    if (!key || *key != *nextKey) {
+        const char* reason = !key ? "first-frame" : (key->viewport != nextKey->viewport ? "viewport" : "camera-or-boundary");
+        invalidate(reason);
+        key = nextKey;
+    }
+    if (valid) {
+        ++reuseCount;
+        particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(particle::RendererDebugCounter::RetainedUnderlayReuse);
+        return RetainedUnderlayDecision::Reuse;
+    }
+    return RetainedUnderlayDecision::Build;
+}
+
+bool RetainedUnderlayCache::prepareResources(gfx::Context& context,
+                                             gfx::ShaderRegistry& shaders,
+                                             const RetainedUnderlayKey& nextKey) {
+    try {
+        if (!offscreenTexture || offscreenTexture->getSize() != nextKey.viewport) {
+            offscreenTexture = context.createOffscreenTexture(
+                nextKey.viewport, gfx::TextureChannelDataType::UnsignedByte, true, true);
+            compositeLayerGroup.reset();
+        }
+        if (!offscreenTexture || !offscreenTexture->isRenderable()) return false;
+        return compositeLayerGroup || rebuildComposite(context, shaders);
+    } catch (...) {
+        return false;
+    }
+}
+
+bool RetainedUnderlayCache::rebuildComposite(gfx::Context& context, gfx::ShaderRegistry& shaders) {
+    auto shader = context.getGenericShader(shaders, CompositeShaderName);
+    auto group = context.createLayerGroup(0, 1, "retained-underlay-composite");
+    if (!shader || !group || !offscreenTexture) return false;
+
+    auto vertices = std::make_shared<gfx::VertexVector<HeatmapTextureLayoutVertex>>(
+        RenderStaticData::heatmapTextureVertices());
+    auto attributes = context.createVertexAttributeArray();
+    if (const auto& attribute = attributes->set(shaders::idRetainedUnderlayCompositePosVertexAttribute)) {
+        attribute->setSharedRawData(vertices,
+                                    offsetof(HeatmapTextureLayoutVertex, a1),
+                                    0,
+                                    sizeof(HeatmapTextureLayoutVertex),
+                                    gfx::AttributeDataType::Short2);
+    }
+
+    auto builder = context.createDrawableBuilder("retained-underlay-composite");
+    builder->setShader(std::move(shader));
+    builder->setEnableDepth(false);
+    builder->setColorMode(gfx::ColorMode::alphaBlended());
+    builder->setCullFaceMode(gfx::CullFaceMode::disabled());
+    builder->setRenderPass(RenderPass::Translucent);
+    builder->setVertexAttributes(std::move(attributes));
+    builder->setRawVertices({}, vertices->elements(), gfx::AttributeDataType::Short2);
+    auto segments = RenderStaticData::heatmapTextureSegments();
+    builder->setSegments(gfx::Triangles(),
+                         RenderStaticData::quadTriangleIndices().vector(),
+                         segments.data(),
+                         segments.size());
+    builder->setTexture(offscreenTexture->getTexture(), shaders::idRetainedUnderlayCompositeTexture);
+    builder->flush(context);
+    for (auto& drawable : builder->clearDrawables()) group->addDrawable(std::move(drawable));
+    compositeLayerGroup = std::move(group);
+    return !compositeLayerGroup->empty();
+}
+
+void RetainedUnderlayCache::upload(gfx::UploadPass& uploadPass) {
+    if (compositeLayerGroup) compositeLayerGroup->upload(uploadPass);
+}
+
+void RetainedUnderlayCache::beginBuild(PaintParameters& parameters) {
+    parameters.renderPass = parameters.encoder->createRenderPass(
+        "retained static underlay",
+        {.renderable = *offscreenTexture,
+         .clearColor = Color{0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f},
+         .clearDepth = 1.0f,
+         .clearStencil = 0});
+#if MLN_RENDER_BACKEND_OPENGL
+    parameters.updateStencilBufferAvailability();
+#endif
+}
+
+void RetainedUnderlayCache::finishBuild(PaintParameters& parameters) {
+    parameters.renderPass.reset();
+    parameters.encoder->present(*offscreenTexture);
+}
+
+void RetainedUnderlayCache::composite(RenderOrchestrator& orchestrator, PaintParameters& parameters) {
+    if (!compositeLayerGroup) return;
+    parameters.pass = RenderPass::Translucent;
+    parameters.currentLayer = 0;
+    compositeLayerGroup->render(orchestrator, parameters);
+}
+
+void RetainedUnderlayCache::markBuildSucceeded() {
+    valid = true;
+    ++buildCount;
+    particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(particle::RendererDebugCounter::RetainedUnderlayBuild);
+}
+
+void RetainedUnderlayCache::markBuildFailed(const char* reason) {
+    ++fallbackCount;
+    particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(particle::RendererDebugCounter::RetainedUnderlayFallback);
+    invalidate(reason);
+}
+
+void RetainedUnderlayCache::invalidate(const char* reason) {
+    valid = false;
+    lastInvalidationReason = reason ? reason : "unknown";
+    particle::incrementRendererDebugCounter(particle::RendererDebugCounter::RetainedUnderlayInvalidation);
+}
+
+} // namespace mbgl
diff --git a/src/mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.hpp b/src/mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..466c7d3d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <mbgl/util/mat4.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/util/size.hpp>
+
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <memory>
+#include <optional>
+#include <string>
+
+namespace mbgl {
+
+class LayerGroup;
+class PaintParameters;
+class RenderOrchestrator;
+
+namespace gfx {
+class Context;
+class OffscreenTexture;
+class ShaderRegistry;
+class UploadPass;
+} // namespace gfx
+
+struct RetainedUnderlayKey {
+    Size viewport;
+    int32_t boundary = 0;
+    mat4 cameraMatrix{};
+
+    bool operator==(const RetainedUnderlayKey&) const = default;
+};
+
+enum class RetainedUnderlayDecision : uint8_t { Disabled, Build, Reuse, Fallback };
+
+class RetainedDynamicBoundaryTracker {
+public:
+    void consider(int32_t layerIndex, bool candidate) {
+        if (candidate && (!boundary || layerIndex < *boundary)) boundary = layerIndex;
+    }
+    std::optional<int32_t> value() const noexcept { return boundary; }
+
+private:
+    std::optional<int32_t> boundary;
+};
+
+enum class RetainedLayerGroupRange : uint8_t { Before, From };
+inline bool retainedLayerGroupInRange(int32_t layerIndex, int32_t boundary, RetainedLayerGroupRange range) {
+    return range == RetainedLayerGroupRange::Before ? layerIndex < boundary : layerIndex >= boundary;
+}
+
+class RetainedUnderlayCache {
+public:
+    RetainedUnderlayCache();
+    ~RetainedUnderlayCache();
+
+    RetainedUnderlayDecision evaluate(const std::optional<RetainedUnderlayKey>&, bool supported,
+                                      const char* fallbackReason = nullptr);
+    bool prepareResources(gfx::Context&, gfx::ShaderRegistry&, const RetainedUnderlayKey&);
+    void upload(gfx::UploadPass&);
+    void beginBuild(PaintParameters&);
+    void finishBuild(PaintParameters&);
+    void composite(RenderOrchestrator&, PaintParameters&);
+    void markBuildSucceeded();
+    void markBuildFailed(const char* reason);
+    void invalidate(const char* reason);
+
+    bool isValid() const noexcept { return valid; }
+    uint64_t getBuildCount() const noexcept { return buildCount; }
+    uint64_t getReuseCount() const noexcept { return reuseCount; }
+    uint64_t getFallbackCount() const noexcept { return fallbackCount; }
+    const std::string& getLastInvalidationReason() const noexcept { return lastInvalidationReason; }
+
+private:
+    bool rebuildComposite(gfx::Context&, gfx::ShaderRegistry&);
+
+    std::optional<RetainedUnderlayKey> key;
+    std::unique_ptr<gfx::OffscreenTexture> offscreenTexture;
+    std::shared_ptr<LayerGroup> compositeLayerGroup;
+    bool valid = false;
+    uint64_t buildCount = 0;
+    uint64_t reuseCount = 0;
+    uint64_t fallbackCount = 0;
+    std::string lastInvalidationReason;
+};
+
+} // namespace mbgl
diff --git a/src/mbgl/shaders/gl/shader_info.cpp b/src/mbgl/shaders/gl/shader_info.cpp
index 4cc3244ba..aeb154e30 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/shaders/gl/shader_info.cpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/shaders/gl/shader_info.cpp
@@ -304,6 +304,16 @@ const std::vector<TextureInfo> ParticleGpuValidationShaderInfo::textures = {
     TextureInfo{"u_state_texture", idParticleGpuValidationStateTexture},
 };
 
+using RetainedUnderlayCompositeShaderInfo =
+    ShaderInfo<BuiltIn::RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader, gfx::Backend::Type::OpenGL>;
+const std::vector<UniformBlockInfo> RetainedUnderlayCompositeShaderInfo::uniformBlocks = {};
+const std::vector<AttributeInfo> RetainedUnderlayCompositeShaderInfo::attributes = {
+    AttributeInfo{"a_pos", idRetainedUnderlayCompositePosVertexAttribute},
+};
+const std::vector<TextureInfo> RetainedUnderlayCompositeShaderInfo::textures = {
+    TextureInfo{"u_image", idRetainedUnderlayCompositeTexture},
+};
+
 // Hillshade Prepare
 using HillshadePrepareShaderInfo = ShaderInfo<BuiltIn::HillshadePrepareShader, gfx::Backend::Type::OpenGL>;
 
diff --git a/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.cpp b/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..40b8aa3a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+#include <mbgl/shaders/mtl/retained_underlay_composite.hpp>
+#include <mbgl/shaders/shader_defines.hpp>
+
+namespace mbgl::shaders {
+using Source = ShaderSource<BuiltIn::RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader, gfx::Backend::Type::Metal>;
+const std::array<AttributeInfo, 1> Source::attributes = {
+    AttributeInfo{0, gfx::AttributeDataType::Short2, 0, idRetainedUnderlayCompositePosVertexAttribute},
+};
+const std::array<TextureInfo, 1> Source::textures = {
+    TextureInfo{0, idRetainedUnderlayCompositeTexture},
+};
+} // namespace mbgl::shaders
diff --git a/src/mbgl/shaders/shader_source.cpp b/src/mbgl/shaders/shader_source.cpp
index 1a4420ff3..a69b9b382 100644
--- a/src/mbgl/shaders/shader_source.cpp
+++ b/src/mbgl/shaders/shader_source.cpp
@@ -30,6 +30,7 @@ MBGL_DEFINE_ENUM(BuiltIn, {
 {BuiltIn::HeatmapShader, "HeatmapShader"},
 {BuiltIn::HeatmapTextureShader, "HeatmapTextureShader"},
 {BuiltIn::ParticleGpuValidationShader, "ParticleGpuValidationShader"},
+{BuiltIn::RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader, "RetainedUnderlayCompositeShader"},
 {BuiltIn::HillshadePrepareShader, "HillshadePrepareShader"},
 {BuiltIn::ColorReliefShader, "ColorReliefShader"},
 {BuiltIn::HillshadeShader, "HillshadeShader"},
diff --git a/test/CMakeLists.txt b/test/CMakeLists.txt
index 893838b72..9d6dadd2f 100644
--- a/test/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/test/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@ add_library(
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/test/plugin/plugin.test.cpp
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/test/renderer/image_manager.test.cpp
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/test/renderer/pattern_atlas.test.cpp
+    ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/test/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.test.cpp
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/test/renderer/shader_registry.test.cpp
     $<$<BOOL:${MLN_WITH_WEBGPU}>:${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/test/renderer/wgsl_preprocessor.test.cpp>
     ${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR}/test/sprite/sprite_loader.test.cpp
diff --git a/test/gl/gl_functions.test.cpp b/test/gl/gl_functions.test.cpp
index 9f22d229e..ed6b6cded 100644
--- a/test/gl/gl_functions.test.cpp
+++ b/test/gl/gl_functions.test.cpp
@@ -4,6 +4,10 @@
 
 #include <mbgl/platform/gl_functions.hpp>
 
+#if defined(__APPLE__)
+#include <TargetConditionals.h>
+#endif
+
 using namespace mbgl::platform;
 
 TEST(GLFunctions, OpenGLES) {
@@ -253,8 +257,15 @@ TEST(GLFunctions, OpenGLES) {
     EXPECT_NE(glGetProgramBinary, nullptr);
     EXPECT_NE(glProgramBinary, nullptr);
     EXPECT_NE(glProgramParameteri, nullptr);
+#if defined(__APPLE__)
+#if TARGET_OS_IPHONE || TARGET_OS_SIMULATOR
     EXPECT_NE(glInvalidateFramebuffer, nullptr);
     EXPECT_NE(glInvalidateSubFramebuffer, nullptr);
+#endif
+#else
+    EXPECT_NE(glInvalidateFramebuffer, nullptr);
+    EXPECT_NE(glInvalidateSubFramebuffer, nullptr);
+#endif
     EXPECT_NE(glTexStorage2D, nullptr);
     EXPECT_NE(glTexStorage3D, nullptr);
     EXPECT_NE(glGetInternalformativ, nullptr);
diff --git a/test/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.test.cpp b/test/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.test.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..2217446cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.test.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+#include <mbgl/renderer/retained_underlay_cache.hpp>
+
+#include <gtest/gtest.h>
+
+#include <vector>
+
+using namespace mbgl;
+
+namespace {
+RetainedUnderlayKey key(Size size = {640, 480}, int32_t boundary = 4) {
+    RetainedUnderlayKey result{size, boundary, {}};
+    result.cameraMatrix[0] = 1.0;
+    result.cameraMatrix[5] = 1.0;
+    result.cameraMatrix[10] = 1.0;
+    result.cameraMatrix[15] = 1.0;
+    return result;
+}
+} // namespace
+
+TEST(RetainedDynamicBoundary, SelectsFirstCandidate) {
+    RetainedDynamicBoundaryTracker none;
+    none.consider(0, false);
+    none.consider(3, false);
+    EXPECT_FALSE(none.value());
+
+    RetainedDynamicBoundaryTracker particleOnly;
+    particleOnly.consider(5, true);
+    EXPECT_EQ(particleOnly.value(), 5);
+
+    RetainedDynamicBoundaryTracker weatherAndParticle;
+    weatherAndParticle.consider(7, true);
+    weatherAndParticle.consider(2, true);
+    EXPECT_EQ(weatherAndParticle.value(), 2);
+
+    RetainedDynamicBoundaryTracker particleAndWeather;
+    particleAndWeather.consider(2, true);
+    particleAndWeather.consider(7, true);
+    EXPECT_EQ(particleAndWeather.value(), 2);
+}
+
+TEST(RetainedLayerGroupRange, PreservesForwardReverseOriginalOrdinals) {
+    const std::vector<int32_t> indices{0, 1, 3, 5, 8};
+    std::vector<size_t> beforeForward;
+    std::vector<size_t> fromForward;
+    std::vector<size_t> beforeReverse;
+    std::vector<size_t> fromReverse;
+    for (size_t ordinal = 0; ordinal < indices.size(); ++ordinal) {
+        if (retainedLayerGroupInRange(indices[ordinal], 5, RetainedLayerGroupRange::Before))
+            beforeForward.push_back(ordinal);
+        else
+            fromForward.push_back(ordinal);
+    }
+    for (size_t ordinal = indices.size(); ordinal-- > 0;) {
+        if (retainedLayerGroupInRange(indices[ordinal], 5, RetainedLayerGroupRange::Before))
+            beforeReverse.push_back(ordinal);
+        else
+            fromReverse.push_back(ordinal);
+    }
+    EXPECT_EQ(beforeForward, (std::vector<size_t>{0, 1, 2}));
+    EXPECT_EQ(fromForward, (std::vector<size_t>{3, 4}));
+    EXPECT_EQ(beforeReverse, (std::vector<size_t>{2, 1, 0}));
+    EXPECT_EQ(fromReverse, (std::vector<size_t>{4, 3}));
+}
+
+TEST(RetainedUnderlayCache, BuildReuseAndInvalidation) {
+    RetainedUnderlayCache cache;
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.evaluate(std::nullopt, false), RetainedUnderlayDecision::Disabled);
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.evaluate(key(), true), RetainedUnderlayDecision::Build);
+    cache.markBuildSucceeded();
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.evaluate(key(), true), RetainedUnderlayDecision::Reuse);
+
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.evaluate(key({800, 600}), true), RetainedUnderlayDecision::Build);
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.getLastInvalidationReason(), "viewport");
+    cache.markBuildSucceeded();
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.evaluate(key({800, 600}, 6), true), RetainedUnderlayDecision::Build);
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.getLastInvalidationReason(), "camera-or-boundary");
+}
+
+TEST(RetainedUnderlayCache, UnsupportedAndResourceFailureFallBackSafely) {
+    RetainedUnderlayCache cache;
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.evaluate(key(), false, "3d"), RetainedUnderlayDecision::Fallback);
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.getLastInvalidationReason(), "3d");
+    EXPECT_FALSE(cache.isValid());
+
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.evaluate(key(), true), RetainedUnderlayDecision::Build);
+    cache.markBuildFailed("resource-or-compositor");
+    EXPECT_FALSE(cache.isValid());
+    EXPECT_EQ(cache.getFallbackCount(), 2u);
+}